Explanation of Human Behavior Essay

Psychology is a vast field that studies the behavior of a person. Because of psychology there is a better understanding of the disorders people may be affected by, the choices people make, and even the sexuality of the human race is understood by psychology. How psychology came to be, is a question that I had asked myself in the past. When researchers chose to directly observe psychological events, such as timed reactions, 130 years ago, psychology emerged into a scientific field of its own. The first psychological lab was created in 1879 by Wilhelm Wandr. Since the field of psychology was originally developed by Caucasian males, many beliefs were biased. As the field of psychology has grown, so has the diversity involved in psychological study; leaving us with more accurate understanding. As I happened to mention earlier, psychology is a vast field. This leaves room for many different perspectives. There are three primary perspectives with several sub-fields of psychology. First there is the biological perspective which includes biopsychology and evolutionary psychology. Second, is the psychological perspective that includes behaviorism, cognitive psychology, the psycho-dynamic approach, and humanism. The third perspective of psychology is the sociocultural perspective. Together, these three perspectives and their sub-fields have helped in advancing knowledge in the field. A long standing debate in the field of psychology is the effect of nature and nurture on a person’s behavioral development. I feel that both are equally important factors in how a person behaves. Some people are born with psychological disorders, but their upbringing helps them live a comfortable life without being controlled by their disorder. Others grow up in a bad environment that brings out the worst of their disorders. There are some people who aren’t born with psychological disorders, but develop some over time due to their upbringing. For example, I was born without any  abnormalities and was completely healthy. Unfortunately I was born into a family of addiction and violence. As a child I was sexually, physically, and emotionally abused. As a result of this abuse I suffered from depression and even now as an adult, many of my choices are influenced by the environment I grew in. I do feel that a lot of personal choices are in our own control, though. Another example, though I was raised in the type of family I was raised in, I chose to be better. I chose to break the pattern of addiction and abuse and become a better person. I know other people who grew up in the same situation as me, and they choose to follow the path and they choose to carry a grudge that the world owes them something. I feel there are too many factors involved in behavior for it to be caused by only one perspective. Reference Mitterer, & Coon. Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior with Concept Maps and Reviews (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Cengage Learning.

The best place to eat

The Best Place to Eat When I came at this country I had the opportunity to taste different kinds of food from different country, and all of them are delicious. I tried Mexican food, Chinese food, Ethiopia food and Italian food. At the beginning I preferred to eat Mexican food because it is the same as my country. Then I went to different Italian restaurants, and I like this type food. However, in this country there are many Italian restaurant, my favorites Italian restaurants are Olive Garden and Uno Chicago pizzeria. Even thoughOliver Garden and Uno Chicago Pizzeria are both Italian restaurants, there are some differences between them. The first reason is how they are convenience. Oliver Garden is located in the suburban area, so you have to drive some miles from the city. In contrast, Uno Chicago Pizzeria is located in the city center, and you can take the metro or bus because the subway station is in front of the restaurant. Also, they have differences on their rules of parking. U no Chicago Pizzeria is locatable on the mall differ from Oliver Garden. For instances, In Oliver Garden you have to pay $10. per hour parking, while in Uno Chicago Pizzeria you do no need to pay it because you just need to validate your ticket in the restaurant and have free parking.. To sum up, these restaurants have the same kind of food, but their location are different. Another reason is their food. Oliver Garden has a lot of variety food, whereas Uno Chicago Pizzeria its specialty is pizzas. Oliver Garden server a lot of choices such as pastas, pizzas, salads, soups, and seafood, while Uno Chicago Pizzeria Jus has a lot of choices on pizzas and some salads.In addition, their food quality is different. Uno Chicago Pizzeria shows its customers on the menu how many calories each choice has; on the other hand, Oliver Garden does not have nutrition information on their menu. For example, if you go to eat at Oliver Garden, you do not how many calories have the dish that you are eatin g. However, Uno Chicago Pizzeria shows you all the information about nutrition information. All in all, these restaurant have different variety and quality, but their food is delicious. The final difference is the atmosphere hat you live in these restaurants.Oliver Garden does not provide entertainment; nevertheless, Uno Chicago Pizzeria provides a lot entertainment. For instances, in Uno Chicago Pizzeria, you can listen music and watch TV while you are eating and enjoy that moment. On the other hand, Oliver Garden does not have these entertainment. Also, Uno Chicago Pizzeria makes decoration in the restaurant on every holiday, whereas Oliver Garden has the same decoration the whole year. For example, in Valentin's days Uno Chicago Pizzeria puts hearths and chocolates to ecorate their tables.In contrast, Oliver Garden does not have nothing to call the attention of costumers on this especial day. Oliver Garden and Uno Chicago Pizzeria are both Italian restaurant, yet their atmosphere is different. To conclude, restaurants are different one to another one. Oliver Garden and Uno Chicago Pizzeria are different in their location, food and atmosphere. It will be interesting to look forward if these restaurants are still continues having the same or more differences. the best place to eat By wendy-fuentes

Public Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Public Argument - Essay Example On the other hand Celie perseveres mistreatment, first by her step father, Fonso and later Albert. The theme of how the oppressed can redeem themselves through unity is well depicted in the film. This is shown when Celie and Sophia put away their differences and become fast friends. Celie goes to an extent of nursing Sophia’s wounds when she is arrested. In addition, this is a feminist movie. It is about a lady finding out who she really is and the value she has and will always have. In the south, Celie endured the patriarchal culture which during her search for truth, she realizes is abusive to a woman. At the beginning, she thought that wife battering is a normal thing. That is why she even advises Harpo to regularly beat Sophia. She even doesn’t deny it when Sophia questions her about it. She later learns that women are equal to men in virtually everything, including knowledge, power and finance, when she escapes from Albert after meeting Shug. When she returns in Ge orgia, at the end of the film, she is a very independent not a submissive and weak lady she used to be. Celie being one of the major female characters in the film, she has a variety of character traits that make the play more appealing and make expression of the themes easy. The ability to love unconditionally, to endure and strength are the three major attributes that make up Celie’s personality. ... This abuse don’t change her from being gentle and caring In various instances in the film Celie considers others first before she considers herself. This is an act of loving others more that she ever loves herself. She takes abuse from Fonso in order to save Nettie and her mother from his cruelty. When she realizes that Nettie might be forced to marry Albert, she marries him to protect her from that. In addition she allows Nettie to move away from the farm, knowing very well that she is the only family and friend she has ever had. This is because she believes that this would protect Nettie from him. In spite of all the difficult circumstances that Celie finds herself in, she survives due to her endurance. She is not only able to put up with uncertainty of Shug’s love, but also to withstand sexual abuse of Fonso, poverty, prejudice, miscarriages, Albert’s cruelty, and loss of Nettie. She is known to love unconditionally. She loves Shug even before meeting her and she is very happy when she realizes that Shug loves her back. Even if Shug doesn’t always treat hers well, she still loves her. When Shug goes away, she decorates a house for her and paints it with purple color and preserves it in hope that she will once return. She also has steadfast love for Sofia. When she is arrested, Celie helps in caring for her wounds, visits her often and encourage her to make her feel better (Klein 91). The movie had a great impact in my life. First of all it provided me with the insight into how life was in the south then, where women were oppressed, men were very abusive and a society that was very judgmental. Although it is an interesting film, it is very emotional film. The various mistreatments that the various female characters go through in the film drove me into

The Right to Keep and Bear Arms by Quilici vs. Morton Grove Essay

The Right to Keep and Bear Arms by Quilici vs. Morton Grove - Essay Example S. Constitution and wanted the ordinance declared unconstitutional. Morton Grove's main argument is based on evidence1 which showed that prohibiting the possession of handguns within the Village will help make the community safer by reducing the number of deaths and accidents caused by handguns. In addition, Morton Grove claimed it had the right to resort to police power to guarantee peace and safety in the community, and that by passing Ordinance 81-11, the village is not violating any of the rights guaranteed by the Illinois Constitution2 The court took the side of Morton Grove and dismissed the case, arguing that it had the right to regulate the ownership and possession of guns and that the Ordinance did not violate the second amendment and the Illinois constitution (Quilici v. Morton Grove II para. 4 and III para. 5). The right to possess firearms is an emotional issue that continues to be argued in courts all over the country. The reason is that this issue reaches into concerns that are very human: the defense, protection, and preservation of life, and our search for security. People who push for the right to own guns may have valid reasons to believe that way. Perhaps, their lives have been threatened in the past.

Description of African immigrants living in the U.S Essay

Description of African immigrants living in the U.S - Essay Example At the end of 1970s, African immigrants constitute around 2 percent of total legally accepted immigrant population in America. In the subsequent decades their share in total immigrant population increased, but not very significantly. For example, in 1980s as well as in 1990s, their share in total immigrant population stands at a level around 3 percent. (Gordon, 92-94, Arthur, 1-2) The countries of Africa from where migration of people to America is mostly taking place over the years are â€Å"Nigeria, South Africa, Liberia, Cape Verde, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia and the Horn of Africa (Mainly Ethiopia, Somalia, and Eritrea)† (Arthur, pp. 2). Among all these countries, Nigeria constitutes the highest percentage of African immigrants in U.S.A. followed by Ethiopia. For example, in 1998, 17 percent of total African immigrants in U.S.A. cane from Nigeria, while 13 percent came from Ethiopia. According to a report published by Immigration and Naturalisation Service in 1971, most of the African immigrants came to America from the northern part of the continent, particularly from countries like Egypt and Morocco. However, over the years immigration from North Africa has slowed down significantly, while immigration from Sub-Saharan countries has got a high pace. The African immigrants in U.S.A. can be treated as a part of the brain drain process, i.e. the pr ocess of migration of talent on an international basis, from less developed countries to the industrialized developed nations of the world. Most the African immigrants presently living in America have already gathered experiences of urban life and interstate migration within their own countries prior to their arrival in the land of America with a hope to further enhance the prospects of their future. (Arthur, 1-2) Over the years, number of Africans living in U.S.A with an expectation of better life has increased. For examples, during 1970, around 61,463 Africans were living in America, while by 1980, this

Forecast of Demand for Sun Chlorella food supplements and delivery in Research Paper

Forecast of Demand for Sun Chlorella food supplements and delivery in Bulgaria, Eastern Europe , supplier company point of view - Research Paper Example This demand forecasting shall be done using the following demand forecast research methods: Jury of executive opinion This aspect of the forecast was done by high-level managers whose services were specially employed by my company. They had to work with top marketing executives of my company. Because the demand forecast adopted the qualitative approach, the jury of executive did not have to use any mathematical or quantitative data. Rather, they used their managerial and professional experience in the area of food supplement industry. The jury pegged the marketability demand for the Sun Chlorella food supplements as very bright and prospective. Their strong points included the following: The increasing education on good health through nutrition has made the demand for food supplements go up over the past five months and it is likely to continue for the next seven months. The target population is Female between the age of 35- 60. Records show that the female population between the age s of 35 and 60 in Eastern Europe and Bulgaria outnumber any population target group. The economy of Eastern Europe and Bulgaria is generally improving and thus any new product introduced unto these markets have higher chances of surviving today than it had six months back. The supplier company will take advantage of the technological factors it has put in place such as the use of websites. This is because accessibility to the internet is becoming increasingly potent in Eastern Europe and Bulgaria via the use of gadgets such as mobile phones, laptops, tablets and the like. Sales force composite The company has designated sales personnel for self-made regions for the sale of the Sun Chlorella Food Supplement. There are ten (10) regions in all across Eastern Europe and Bulgaria for that matter. Each of these ten sales representatives was tasked to make projection of sales. They were to do their projections based on the experienced they have acquired in dealing with other food products that Apricus Limited has had to trade in before. Their projections were also to be guided by the opinion of the jury of executives. With the introduction of the all new Sun Chlorella Food Supplement into the trade criteria of Apricus Limited, the following are the percentage increase in profit that each of the ten (10) sales representatives came up with. Representative Headquarters Percentage Increase in Profit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Belarus Czech Republic Hungary Moldova Poland Romania Bulgaria Russia Slovakia Ukraine 12% 7% 6% 14% 16% 9% 8% 19% 13% 9% Average increase (12 + 7 + 6 + 14 + 16 + 9 + 8 + 19 + 13 + 9) ? 10 = 11.3% From the table, it can be seen that the company can expect as much as 11.3% rise in its net profits. Delphi method The Delphi method was adopted not as a major method for determining the demand forecast. Rather, it was fused to be an evaluative method for the first two methods adopted. This is however not to defeat the fact that the Delphi method can be used as an independent method for demand forecasting because as Whonder (2009) notes, â€Å"Delphi techniques are used to forecast trends and the effects of decisions.†

Communication Ethics - Philosopher report - John Rawls Essay

Communication Ethics - Philosopher report - John Rawls - Essay Example Rawls was born in Baltimore, Maryland to William Lee Rawls and Anna Abell Stump. He spent his early childhood in Baltimore and went to school there before being transferred to Kent School. With his father a well-known lawyer and his mother a chapter president of the League of Women Voters, Rawls had a strong inclination towards education and it became evident that he would enter a scholarly field. Rawls first went to Princeton to study and after graduating in 1939 he became a member of The Ivy Club. At Princeton, he developed major interest for theology and its doctrines. In 1943, after completing a bachelor’s degree in Arts, he joined the Army. His had his first professorial responsibilities at Cornell and MIT. In 1962 he became a faculty member at Harvard, where his teaching tenure lasted for more than thirty years. With such a family background, Rawls’s adult life was a scholarly one with the major portion spent on his writings. However, during this period he also witnessed World War II and the Vietnam conflict which had a deep influence on him. During World War II, he was appointed as a soldier in the Pacific, where he visited Philippines, and Japan. After witnessing the effects of the nuclear bombings in Hiroshima, Rawls decided to quit the army in 1946. He had a strong faith in Christianity and wanted to study priesthood but, after witnessing Holocaust, his faith weakened. The Vietnam conflict compelled Rawls to identify the defects in the political system of US. He considered the war to be unjust and conveyed as to how citizens could have no say in the government’s aggressive policies. Rawls was married to Margaret Fox in 1949, who was a Brown University graduate. Rawls used Justice as Fairness as a phrase to refer to his theory of justice. It appeared as a title to one of his essays in 1958 on the same subject. The theory consists of two parts: Firstly, all

Myth as a Mirror of Conflict and Violence Essay

Myth as a Mirror of Conflict and Violence - Essay Example For the first century and a half of our national existence, our relations with the people of the Middle East were largely beneficent and protective, not withstanding our conflict with the Barbary Pirates in North Africa. But Islamic civilization was on a downward trajectory that could not be arrested. Its social and economic structures, its values, its neglect of education, its lack of scientific curiosity, the indolence of its ruling classes and its inability to produce a single modern state that served its people all guaranteed that, as the West's progress accelerated, the Middle East would fall ever farther behind. The Middle East has itself to blame for its problems. Conflict and violence are common concerns to whether it was the story of Cain Killing Abel, the start of World Wars I and II or the Trojan War and The War of the Spartans. As a result of the influence of myth, these cultures have used violence as a means of resolving conflict. For the myth makes war palatable. It giv es war a logic and sanctity it does not possess. It saves us from peering into the darkest recesses of our own hearts. And this is why we like it. It is why we clamor for myth. The myth is enjoyable, and the press, as is true in every nation that goes to war, is only too happy to oblige. One of the first conflicts known to mankind that resulted to a violent demise was that of Biblical times between two Middle Eastern brothers' Cain and Abel. Cain and Abel were brothers who both developed different attitudes. One brother felt acknowledged more than the other. As a result Cain began to "[grow] hot with anger, and his countenance began to fall which eventually led to him developing a bad heart and cold blooded murder" of his brother Abel (Bias (2006), p. 22). ). In myth "creation is an act of violence" so the myth's perception would have perceived that when Cain and Abel were created they were meant to be created with violent tendencies (Wink, 45). Cain's actions were a result of jealousy and because humans are usually confronted with issues that are out in the open, we sometimes don't want to deal with the issue when confronted with our actions. In Cain's case after killing his brother Abel he became unremorseful and heartless when God confronted him and asked "where i s Abel

Taping over uneven ground Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Taping over uneven ground - Lab Report Example It is actually a common measuring tool whose design allows measuring a great length and can easily be carried on pockets or toolkit a part from the fact that it permits one to measure around the curves or corners. This equipment is majorly used for measuring short straight distances Usually with a pointed tip on the bottom, that is suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or  plumb-line. It is essentially the vertical equivalent of a "level†. This equipment was used to accurately locate vertical orientation. As can be seen from the picture, finishing nail is a slender nail having a narrow head being able to be driven easily into the wood surface. It then leaves a small hole that can be filled with putty and smaller compound. It is normally used in marking the various short distances that have been measured in order to ensure there is straightness of the tape. 7) A member of our team stood from a distance to observe if the tape was sagging to make sure the measurement was accurate. A plumb bob was held over point A. we then measured the distance between points AE prime and E and then added the two measurements taken. Different segments had different measurement values. Trial 1 to 3 the values are almost close but not exact. The values of the horizontal distances with no breaks also varied with those when using breaking tape. Some errors were encountered when carrying out the experiment; the errors could have been due to improper reading of the tape or using the equipment. The variation of the end graduations between the horizontal distances was due to the effect of temperature and the weight of the tape. The error could have been reduced by applying greater tension to the tape, personal errors could have been reduced by avoiding parallax when reading the

Legal status of foreign citizens, stateless persons and legal entities Assignment

Legal status of foreign citizens, stateless persons and legal entities in the field of property relations in Uzbekistan - Assignment Example Finally, thÐ µ papÐ µr will discuss thÐ µ concÐ µrns and problÐ µms thÐ µ forÐ µign invÐ µstors havÐ µ to dÐ µal with. UzbÐ µkistan and othÐ µr CÐ µntral Asian countriÐ µs sÐ µÃ µm to bÐ µ forgottÐ µn by most ЕuropÐ µan forÐ µign invÐ µstors whÐ µn looking for a placÐ µ to invÐ µst thÐ µir capital. This is truÐ µ Ð µvÐ µn though thÐ µ CÐ µntral Asian rÐ µpublics arÐ µ stratÐ µgically locatÐ µd and land-lockÐ µd bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn ЕuropÐ µ and Asia. ThÐ µ quÐ µstion arisÐ µs if it is so bÐ µcausÐ µ thosÐ µ tÐ µrritoriÐ µs arÐ µ gÐ µographically quitÐ µ far from ЕuropÐ µ, bÐ µcausÐ µ of a fÐ µar that CÐ µntral Asia doÐ µs not offÐ µr a sÐ µcurÐ µ Ð µnvironmÐ µnt for forÐ µign invÐ µstmÐ µnts or simply bÐ µcausÐ µ of not having Ð µnough information about thosÐ µ countriÐ µs, thÐ µir invÐ µstmÐ µnt lÐ µgislation and thÐ µir actual capability of Ð µnforcing such lÐ µgislation. ThÐ µ purposÐ µ of the current papÐ µr is to providÐ µ introductory information about thÐ µ invÐ µstmÐ µnt lÐ µgislation of UzbÐ µkistan, its implÐ µmÐ µntation in practicÐ µ and to point out spÐ µcific problÐ µms thÐ µ forÐ µign invÐ µstors havÐ µ to dÐ µal with oncÐ µ placing thÐ µir invÐ µstmÐ µnt in this country. ThÐ µ paper will introducÐ µ somÐ µ basic facts concÐ µrning thÐ µ transfÐ µr of intÐ µrnational capital and thÐ µ main mÐ µans of intÐ µrnational invÐ µstmÐ µnt protÐ µction in addition to discussing thÐ µ currÐ µnt invÐ µstmÐ µnt lÐ µgislation and thÐ µ problÐ µms connÐ µctÐ µd with its application in practicÐ µ. ThÐ µ transfÐ µr of cross-bordÐ µr invÐ µstmÐ µnts has bÐ µcomÐ µ a daily rÐ µality of today’s morÐ µ and morÐ µ globalizÐ µd world. In ordÐ µr to promotÐ µ intÐ µrnational invÐ µstmÐ µnt Ð µxchangÐ µ, thÐ µ statÐ µs insist on mutual facilitation of transfÐ µr of intÐ µrnational capital and arÐ µ trying to takÐ µ all advantagÐ µs connÐ µctÐ µd with thÐ µ inflow of forÐ µign invÐ µstmÐ µnts. For dÐ µvÐ µloping countriÐ µs, thÐ µ placÐ µmÐ µnt of forÐ µign invÐ µstmÐ µnt in thÐ µir tÐ µrritoriÐ µs doÐ µs not mÐ µan only acquiring financial capital, but also

Copper Corrosion Essay Example for Free

Copper Corrosion Essay In this experiment, I will be testing the corrosion rate of copper wire after leaving them in different liquids with different pH levels. By doing so I will be able to determine which pH level corrodes copper the fastest. I will conduct this experiment by pouring 250mL of different liquids with different pH levels in cups, followed by an iron strip placed into the cup. A stopwatch will be timing how long it takes the iron strip to fully corrode. The cups will be placed in the same environment right next to each other in order for the cups to be in the same temperature. All of the cups will be the same type of cup to make sure the cups won’t have a role determining the results. There will be three trials for each type of liquid. This will ensure the most accurate results. The pH level will be tested with a strip of litmus paper to determine the official pH level of the liquid. The stopwatch will start as soon as all of the copper wire are placed into the cups. I will be watching the cups, taking note of any qualitative data I see. When I see that the iron strip in one of the cups is fully covered in rust, I will record the time that was on my stopwatch. To analyze the data I will first find the average pH level for each of the liquids. Then I will average the total time it took for the copper wire to corrode. This data will be in hours. To see if there was any correlation between the independent variable and dependent variable, I will create a graph with the time it took the copper wire to corrode as the y-axis and the pH level as the x-axis. Hypothesis: If the pH level is more acidic, than the iron strip will corrode at a faster rate. Independent Variable: pH level of liquids Dependent Variable: rate of corrosion of iron strip Control: pH of 7 (Tap water) Constants: †¢ Same amount of liquid in each cup (50mL) †¢ Same sized copper wire (5x3/4x3/64) †¢ Same type of cup †¢ Cups placed in same temperature †¢ Cups placed in same environment Materials: †¢ 12 copper wire †¢ 4 see through cups †¢ 150mL of vinegar †¢ 150mL of bleach †¢ 150mL of tap water †¢ 150mL of hydrogen peroxide †¢ Litmus paper †¢ Stop watch †¢ Sharpie †¢ Paper towel Procedure: 1. On the see through cups, label which liquid will be poured into them 2. Pour 50mL of the liquids into their corresponding cups. 3. Put litmus paper into each liquid to get official pH level. Record pH level. 4. Place iron strip into liquid, making sure it is completely surrounded by liquid 5. Start stopwatch as soon as the copper wire are placed into cup. 6. Observe the copper wire. Record down the time whenever one of the copper wire is fully covered in corrosion. 7. Once all the times are recorded empty the cups and rinse them out with water. 8. Repeat steps 2-7 two more times. 9. Find the average time it took to corrode the iron strip. Abstract: I will be testing how pH levels of liquids affect the corrosion rate of an iron strip. The independent variable for this experiment is the pH level of the liquid. I will be using four different liquids, each having a different pH level. I will be using tap water, which is neutral; salt water, which is generally slightly basic; bleach, a very basic liquid; and vinegar, a very acidic liquid. The tap water will serve as my control. Having a variety of pH levels helps to give me a better perspective on how much of a factor pH level is on corrosion rate. The dependent variable will be the time it takes the iron strip to fully corrode. The unit for this measurement will be minutes.

The Types Of Pasta

The Types Of Pasta Delicious, healthy, quick to cook and, above all, economical pasta really is the ultimate convenience food. Whether simply tossed with a sauce, fresh vegetables or salad ingredients, or combined as a dish and baked in the oven, pasta can be used as the base of countless fabulous meals. And because there are so many different types of pasta fresh or dried, long or short, stuffed or flat and so many ways of combining them, from the ultra-simple to the impressively sophisticated, there really is a pasta dish for every occasion. Of the many, many different types of pasta available, they can be divided into four main categories: long, short, flat and stuffed. In turn, these many be fresh or dried, with wholemeal varieties available in some shapes, and made of durum wheat flour and water, or with additional egg. They may also be coloured and flavoured with spinach (green), tomato (red), beetroot (pink), saffron (yellow), squid ink (black) and herbs. Fresh pasta is delicious, although not necessarily better than dried pasta and many Italians will choose dried pasta over fresh for specific dishes. As a rule of thumb, buy the best pasta you can afford, as it will make all the difference to the final flavour and texture of the dish. LONG PASTA Most types of long pasta are sold dried, and some are also available fresh. They vary in length and may be sold in straight lengths, pressed into waves or coiled into nests. They are usually made from plain durum wheat. Those made with delicate egg pasta are usually sold coiled into nests. Most long pastas suit smooth, creamy and clinging sauces. Common varieties include: à ¢-  Bucatini Resembling thick spaghetti, each strand is hollow. There is a thicker version known as bucatoni. à ¢-  Capelli dangelo Also called angel hair pasta, this very long, thin pasta is like delicate vermicelli and is sold in nests. It is usually served with sauce, or in soup. Figure 2.2 Capelli dangelo à ¢-  Fettuccine Long, flat ribbons sold in nests. It may be plain, with egg or with spinach. It can be used interchangeably with tagliatelle. Figure 2.3 Fettuccine à ¢-  Linguine Resembling thin, flat spaghetti and used in the same way. Figure 2.4 Linguine à ¢-  Pappardelle Broad, flat noodles, often with a wavy edge. It often made with egg pasta and is tranditionally served with meat and game sauces. Figure 2.5 Pappardelle à ¢-  Spaghetti Probably the best known of all long pastas, these long, thin strings are good with ant sauce. Spaghettini has thinner strands. Figure 2.6 Spaghetti à ¢-  Tagliatelle Flat ribbon noodles sold in nests. It may be plain or with egg or spinach. Figure 2.7 Tagliatelle à ¢-  Vermicelli Fine pasta strands, sold coiled into nests. It may be plain or with egg and is good with light sauces. Figure 2.8 Vermicelli SHORT PASTA There are even more varieties of short pasta than there are long. They are widely available fresh and dried and may be plain, with egg, or flavorued and coloured. They are favoured by many for their versatility suiting most sauces and being great in salads and baked dishes. Common varieties include: à ¢-  Conchiglie Shell-shaped and available in many different sizes from large ones for stuffing, medium ones for tossing with sauce and tiny ones for soup. Figure 3.1 Conchiglie à ¢-  Farfalle Little pasta bows, plain or flavoured with spinach or tomato. Figure 3.2 Farfalle à ¢-  Fiorelli Pretty pasta tubes with a lacy edge. Figure 3.3 Fiorelli à ¢-  Fusilli Spirals resembling tight springs, formed by wrapping dough around a thin rod. Figure 3.4 Fusilli à ¢-  Macaroni Thick, slightly curved tubes of pasta. It is particularly popular served with thick, creamy sauces and in baked dishes. Figure 3.5 Macaroni à ¢-  Pastina Tiny pasta shapes for soup. They come in a fabulous array of shapes for soup. They come in a fabulous array of shapes including stars, letters, tubes, shells, bows, rings and squares. Larger ones are good for chunky soups such as minestrone, while the tiniest are ideal for light broths. Figure 3.6 Pastina à ¢-  Penne Tubular pasta shapes with angled ends, resembling a quill. Figure 3.7 Penne à ¢-  Rigatoni Ridged, chunky tubes used in the same way as macaroni. Figure 3.8 Rigatoni à ¢-  Rotelle Shaped like tiny cartwheels, these are very popular with children. Figure 3.9 Rotelle FLAT PASTA There are many flat pasta ribbons (see long pasta, above), but there is really only one type of flat pasta sheet. à ¢-  Lasagne Usually plain or flavoured with spinach, and available dried or fresh. The most commonly available varieties require no pre-cooking. The flat or ridged sheets may be layered with sauce and baked to make classic lasagna, or cooked then rolled around a filling and baked to make cannelloni. Figure 4 Lasagne STUFFED PASTA Usually available fresh, but also dried, stuffed pasta is good served simply, tossed with butter or oil, or with smooth sauces. Common varieties include: à ¢-  Cannelloni Dried pasta tubes for stuffing yourself, then covering in sauce and baking. Figure 5.1 Cannelloni à ¢-  Cappelletti Little hat-shaped pasta shapes made from a square of pasta dough that has been filled, folded into a triangle, and the ends wrapped round to make a brim. Traditionally eaten at Christmas in broth, but also good tossed with butter or sauce. Figure 5.2 Cappelletti à ¢-  Ravioli Usually square, these stuffed cushions of pasta may be large or small. Fillings may vary, to, with meat, fish, shellfish, cheese and vegetables all being popular. Figure 5.3 Ravioli à ¢-  Tortellini Similar to cappelletti in appearance, although larger and made with dough rounds rather than squares. Like ravioli, fillings are many and varied. Figure 5.4 Tortellini COOKING PASTA Pasta, whether fresh or dried, is incredibly simple to cook as long as you follow there simple rules. 1. Always use a big pan with plenty of water. The pasta needs enough room to cook without sticking together. Allow about 5 litres of water for every 500g of pasta. If youre cooking less pasta, you should still use at least 2.75 litres of water. 2. Add enough salt to the water: pasta cooked in unsalted water will give tasteless results. Allow 1 2 tablespoons of salt for every 500g of pasta. *Dont worry if this sounds like a lot of salt; most of it will be thrown away with the cooking water. 3. Add a little oil to the water to prevent the pasta sticking together. In the case of lasagna sheets, up to a tablespoonful of oil may be needed. Bring the cooking water to a fast rolling boil before adding the pasta otherwise the pasta can become stodgy. 4. Add the pasta in one go so that it all has the same cooking time. Long pasta such as spaghetti should be placed in the boiling water, then gently pressed into the water as it softens to ensure even cooking. 5. Give the pasta a quick stir to prevent it sticking together, then quickly return the water to a roiling boil. 6. Reduce the heat to medium-high so that the water remains at a brisk boil, stirring now and again to prevent the pasta sticking. 7. The pasta is ready when it is al dente that is tender, yet still with a bite when bitten. The easiest way to check this is to remove a piece of pasta from the pan and give it a bite. If you overcook pasta, you will get soft, stodgy results. 8. As soon as the pasta is al dente, drain it well, shaking the colander or sieve to remove any excess water. Reserve 2-3 tablespoons of cooking water in case you need to loosen the pasta sauce when you combine it with the pasta. *If the pasta is to be served cold, rinse it under cold water in the colander, then set aside. 9. Serve immediately with the sauce of your choice, or add ingredients ready for baking. HOW MUCH PASTA? The quantity of pasta required per person is a slightly moveable feast, depending on appetite, whether the sauce is light or substantial, and whether youre serving the dish as an appetizer or main course. However, you can use the following dry weight as a general guide: à ¢-  for an appetizer, allow 50g (2oz) per person à ¢-  for a main meal, allow 75-125g (3-4oz) per person COOKING TIMES Accurate timing is essential for perfect pasta, and cooking times can vary according to the variety, brand and type of pasta. Always check the packet for timing, or, if youre making your own, follow the timing given in the recipe. Start timing as soon as the water returns to the boil after adding the pasta. As a general guide, use the following times: à ¢-  thin, fresh noodles 1-2 minutes à ¢-  thicker fresh noodles and pasta shapes 2-3 minutes à ¢-  stuffed fresh pasta 3-4 minutes à ¢-  dried pasta 8-12 minutes (though wholemeal may take longer). WHICH PASTA? WHAT SAUCE? Another secret to success when serving pasta is pairing the right pasta with the right sauce -synchronizing your timing so that theyre both ready at the same time. *Most sauces can stand a little waiting while the pasta finishes cooking, but pasta is best served as soon as it is cooked, so try to make sure your sauce is ready in time. Although some sauces are traditionally served with specific pastas for example fettuccine all Alfredo, bucatini all Amatriciana, and penne all Arrabiata common sense usually prevails when pairing pasta and sauces. Heavy, chunky sauces are best served with short pasta shapes, such as penne, conchiglie and rigatoni, or wide noodles, such as pappardelle and tagliatelle. The sauce doesnt slide off these pastas in the way that it would a fine, delicate pasta such as capelli dangelo. Long, thin pastas, such as spaghetti and linguine, go better with smooth sauces that cling to their length, such as tomato or creamy sauces. And delicate pastas such as vermicelli go well with light sauces, such as seafood ones. There are also classic Italian regional pairings. For example, olive oil sauces made with tomatoes and seafood, which are popular in the south, are usually served with the plain durum wheat pasta, such as spaghetti and vermicelli, that is popular in the area. In the north, however, sauces are frequently made with butter and cream, and these go very well with the egg pasta that is made there. STORAGE Fresh pasta is best eaten on the day that it is made, although it can be refrigerated for 24 hours, or frozen for up to 3 months. Ready-made, vacuum-packed varieties may be stored in the refrigerator for slightly longer, so check the advice on the packet. Once opened, dried pasta should be stored in an airtight container and used within 9 months. Figure 6 Cooking pasta steps HISTORY OF PASTA Although pasta is associated with Italian food, but researchers claim pasta to be a Chinese invention that was brought by Venetian merchant Marco Polo to Italy after his famous trip to the Middle Kingdom in the 13th century.The idea that Marco Polo brought pasta from China to Italy is as similar to Italians as the idea that the hamburger came from Germany is to Americans. No one argue that the Chinese have made pasta, from many more kinds of flour than Europeans have, since at least 1100 B.C. Italians insist as a point of national pride that they invented pasta in their part of the world, despite considerable evidence that they did not. They cite as proof a set of reliefs on an Etruscan tomb dating from the fourth century BC, which carved a knife, a board with a raised edge that resembles a modern pasta board, a flour sack, and a pin that they say was made of iron and used for shaping tubular pasta. The Museum of the History of Spaghetti, owned by Agnesi (a pasta manufacturer near Tu rin) makes much of these reliefs, as do most histories of pasta-including the standard one, Anna del Contes Portrait of Pasta. The reliefs do not persuade the American historian Charles Perry, who has written several articles on the origins of pasta. There are plenty of things to do with a pin besides shape pasta, he says. In fact, Perry says, no sure Roman reference to a noodle of any kind, tubular or flat, has turned up, and that makes the Etruscan theory even more unlikely, given that the Romans dominated Italy soon after the Etruscans did. The first clear Western reference to boiled noodles, Perry says, is in the Jerusalem Talmud of the fifth century A.D., written in Aramaic. The authors debated whether or not noodles violated Jewish dietary laws. (Today only noodles made of matzoh meal are kosher for Passover.) They used the word itriyah, thought by some scholars to derive from the Greek itrion, which referred to a kind of flatbread used in religious ceremonies. By the tenth century, it appears, itriyah in many Arabic sources referred to dried noodles bought from a vendor, as opposed to fresh ones made at home. Other Arabic sources of the time refer to fresh noodles as lakhsha, a Persian word that was the basis for words in Russian, Hungarian, and Yiddish. (By comparison with these words, noodle, which dates from sixteenth-century German, originated yesterday.) In the twelfth century an Arab geographer, commissioned by the Norman king of Sicily to write a sort of travel book about the island, reported seeing pasta bei ng made. The geographer called it itriyah, from which seems to have come trii, which is still the word for spaghetti in some parts of Sicily and is also current in the name for a dish made all over Italy-ciceri e trii, pasta and chick-pea soup. The soup reflects the original use for pasta, which was as an extender in soups and sometimes desserts. Serving pasta as a dish in itself with a bit of sauce does seem to be an Italian rather than a Greek, Persian, or Arab invention. (Classic Cuisine of the Italian Jews, a wonderful book by EddaServiMachlin, has delicious pasta recipes that show some of the many influences that the Arab world had on Italian food.) The Marco Polo myth has refused to die. Italians accuse Americans of promulgating it, beginning with an influential article in a 1929 issue of Macaroni Journal (now Pasta Journal), an American trade magazine, which has inspired countless advertisements, restaurant placemats, cookbooks, and even movies. (From 1919 on, Macaroni Journal occasionally published articles purporting to give the history of pasta, usually-though not always-labeling the less plausible ones as lore. The 1929 story began, Legend has it . . .) In the 1938 film The Adventures of Marco Polo, Gary Cooper points to a bowl of noodles and asks a Chinese man what he calls them. In our language, the man replies, we call them spa get. In the centuries after Marco Polos voyage pasta continued to be a luxury in Italy. By 1400 it was being produced commercially, in shops that retained night watchmen to protect the goods. The vermicelli, as dried pasta was known, was kneaded by foot: men trod on dough to make it malleable enough to roll out. The treading could last for a day. The dough then had to be extruded through pierced dies under great pressure, a task accomplished by a large screw press powered by two men or one horse. This somewhat gamy procedure was not used for other kinds of dough, but commercial pasta dough has never been normal dough. The flour used to make it-semolina-is granular, like sugar, and has a warm golden color. Semolina makes a straw-colored dough that must be kneaded for a long time, which is why it has always been far more common in commercial than in homemade pasta. Semolina is milled from durum wheat (Triticum durum; durum means hard), a much harder grain than common wheat (Triticumvulgarum), which is used to make ordinary flour. (The harder the grain, the more energy required to mill it.) All durum makes firmer cooked pasta than common flour does, but not all durum is alike in hardness or quality. The kind of durum milled into semolina and how a manufacturer makes and dries the dough determine the firmness of the pasta when it is cooked. Durum wheat was suited to the soil and weather of Sicily and Campania, the region around Naples, and so the pasta industry developed there, in the eighteenth century, and led Italian production into this century. Naples had a perfect climate for drying pasta. The alternation of mild sea breezes and hot winds from Mount Vesuvius ensured that the pasta would not dry too slowly, and thus become moldy, or too fast, and thus crack or break. The number of pasta shops in Naples went from sixty to 280 between the years 1700 and 1785. Young English aristocrats making the grand tour in the eighteenth century were shown the city where pasta hung everywhere to dry-in the streets, on balconies, on roofs. Neapolitan street vendors sold cooked spaghetti from stalls with charcoal-fired stoves, working with bowls of grated Romano cheese beside them. Customers would follow the example of the barkers, who lifted the long strands high and dropped them into their mouths. The grand tourists assumed that t he fork hadnt yet caught on in Italy, whereas it was the Venetians who in the sixteenth century had introduced the fork to Europe. EVOLUTION OF PASTA As we look into the history of Italian pasta cooking, we will see that the food used as a basic type of food in the Italian diet has not always been so. While till the 1500s, macaroni (the term used for any dried pasta) was considered an exotic food, cooking pasta in an Italian household was considered very expensive chiefly due to the high costs and the time-intensive labor required for making pasta and was reserved only for the upper class. However, after the 17th century, the variation of the pasta industry saw a sea-change along with rapid industrialization and technological advances, finally making Italian pasta cooking a hot favorite among all classes. For this reason, Italians embraced pasta as an essential part of their daily diet. Eventually, the diversity, distinctive flavors and unique specialty dishes originating from Italian pasta made Italian cuisine a hot favorite among the whole of Europe and America. Italian pasta of course rules the roost, being the most important o f food culture throughout all of Italy. Through the course of time, the role of Italian pasta has changed greatly throughout Italys culinary history. Once enjoyed by Italys elite as a handmade specialty, today cooking pasta is made the foundation of Italian cuisine all over the globe. Today, a large amount of Italian pasta products available in the market consist of both fresh and dried pasta and range in size from tiny soup pasta to large sheets of lasagna noodles. Furthermore, there are shaped Italian pasta available in many different sizes and specific shapes. While the basic cooking method used for cooking pasta is boiling, a few other methods are also used to cook specific types of pasta, including baking, stir-frying, and deep-frying. Accomplished with a minimal amount of equipment like a large pot, a large spoon, and a colander, Italian pasta meals are known for their flavor and paired with healthy ingredients like tomato sauce, fresh vegetables, olive oil and fish. The meal is low in fat and contains nutrients and antioxidants to nurture body as your palate. Human diet on pasta PASTA IS A MEAL Generally, pasta is a simple dish, but comes in large varieties because it is a versatile food item. Some pasta dishes are served as an appertizer in Italy because the portion sizes are small and simple. The servings are usually accompanied by a side of meat. Pasta is also can be prepared as main course, such as salads or large portion sizes for dinner. HOW DO ITALIANS EAT PASTA? They serve pasta in warm, shallow and wide bowls instead of on dinner plates. In Italy, they call this a piatto fondo or deep dish. The rims of the bowl should be just enough to spin the fork against. They dont have to use the spoon. They put smaller portions of spaghetti on their fork before start to twirl. Then, twirl the pasta with a fork keeping the fork tip in contact with the plate. By doing so, they avoid the need to slurp and the need for a bib. DO ITALIANS EAT PASTA EVERYDAY? Yes, they eat pasta every day. In Italy, pasta is the most dishes that are dressed really simple and with few ingredients. They always use fresh and natural ingredients, dress lightly and most of all dont overcook. This is because overcooked pasta sends blood sugar higher than pasta cooked al dente. Italians believe that overcooked pasta is harder to digest and doesnt leave them feeling sluggish. When pasta is overcooked, it means it has absorbed its maximum amount of liquid. On the other hand, pasta cooked al dente can still absorb more during the digestive process and therefore digests more easily. PASTA SERVING SIZE Portion size of pasta is different depending on the ways that they eat pasta: Two to four ounces dry spaghetti as an appetizer Four to six ounces for a main course WHY EAT PASTA WITH SAUCE? Pasta sauces vary in taste, color and texture. Different types of pasta are served with different types of sauce according to the general rule that must be observed. For example, simple sauces like pesto are ideal for long and thin strands of pasta while tomato sauce combines well with thicker pastas. Thicker and chunkier sauces have the better ability to cling onto the holes and cuts of short, tubular, twisted pastas. Sauce should be served equally with its pasta. It is important that the sauce does not overflow the pasta. The extra sauce is left on the plate after all of the pasta is eaten. WHY PASTA POPULAR IN ITALY? Pasta is a traditional food in Italy and it is popular because it can be made into lots of shapes and pasta dishes. People can create lots of different dishes with it. It tastes delicious and its filling. Now, it became modern cooks because it is easy to prepare and convenient. Its also has a long shelf life Commercialization of Pasta Commercialization enables manufacturers to take the right product into the right place, at the right time, to satisfy end-consumers. In fact, the commercialization of pasta could only have developed in a strongly urbanized society. Due to its ease of preparation, low cost, versatility, palatability, long shelf life, and nutritional value, pasta is a popular commercial food product. Pasta products are commonly produced by extrusion, and their main ingredients are durum wheat semolina and water. Celiac disease is an immune-mediated disease triggered by the ingestion of the protein composite gluten. The only treatment for celiac disease is the permanent exclusion of sources of gluten (wheat, rye, and barley products) from the diet. It is important that high-quality cereal products made from alternative grains are available to this segment of the population. Recently, research on the improvement and development of gluten-free pasta has enahnced. Meanwhile, the number of gluten-free pasta products available on the market has increased dramatically. Preparation of Pasta BLT PASTA SALAD (BLT Bacon, Lettuce, Tomatoes) Ingredients 250gm any spiral/corkscrew pasta (Riccioli)  ½ cup milk 200gm bacon, sliced small 200gm cherry tomatoes, halved 1 clove garlic, finely minced 1 head of cos lettuce or 5 heads of baby romaine, torn to small pieces (basicallycos lettuce or romaine is the same thing) 100gm mayonnaise 70gm natural set plain yogurt 4 tbsp chopped spring onions salt black pepper Methods 1. Cook the pasta as per instructions on packaging until al dente. Drain and mix with milk. Set aside. (toss it from time to time to distribute the milk) 2. Fry bacon in pan (no oil) until crispy and the bacon oil oozes out. Tilt pan and let the oil drain off the bacon. Dish up bacon. Set aside. 3. Pour away most of the oil in pan, leaving behind about 2-3 tbsp of it. On medium heat, sautà © garlic until fragrant and pour in the halved cherry tomatoes. Just spread in pan but dont toss them. Let it cook until the garlic is golden. Tilt pan, push tomatoes to the higher side and let the oil collect at the lower side. Dish up tomatoes and as much garlic as you can. Set aside. (the tomatoes should not be mushy, but just cooked) 4. Prepare salad dressing, mix everything together and sprinkled the final 1 tbsp of spring onion as garnish. BAKED PASTA Ingredients 400gm pasta (shell pasta) 2 tbsp butter 2 tbsp oil 1 large onion, diced 3 cloves garlic, roughly chopped 400gm beef, minced 4 tbspchilli Paste 1 large carrot, diced 2 tomatoes, roughly chopped 1  ½ c peas 4 eggs, beaten 1 c cheddar, grated A handful of fried scallions A handful of parsley, chopped Salt sugar for seasoning Method 1. Cook pasta in a pot of boiling water until 2/3 cooked. Season with salt. Drain and set aside. 2. Then, heat wok with oil and butter. 3. Cook onion until soft and slightly caramelized. 4. Add in garlic. 5. Add the beef and cook until slightly brown. 6. Add chili paste and cook until the oil starts to bubble on the surface. 7. Add in carrot and stir well until slightly soft. 8. Add in tomatoes and let it cook until soft. Then mix in the pasta. 9. Switch the heat off, add parsley and season well with salt and sugar. 10. Make a well in the center of the wok and pour in beaten eggs. Let it scramble and stir to mix. 11. Combine the ingredients well. 12. Put the combined ingredients in a casserole dish. 13. Sprinkle the cheese and fried scallions evenly over the top of the mixture and bake at 150oC for 20-25 mins. GREEK MEAT PASTA Ingredients 1 package rotini pasta (16 ounce) 3 tbsp olive oil, divided 1 pound ground beef 6 tomatoes, grated 1 sweet yellow onion, grated  ½cup water 3 tbsp tomato paste 1 tbsp ground cinnamon  ½tsp white sugar  ½tsp cayenne pepper Salt ground black pepper to taste 4 cups shredded Mizithra cheese 1 cup shredded mozzarella cheese Method 1. Bring a large pot of lightly salted water to a boil; cook the rotini at a boil until tender yet firm to the bite, about 8 minutes; drain. Transfer to a large bowl and toss with 2 tablespoons olive oil. 2. Heat 1 tablespoon olive oil in a large skillet over medium heat; cook and stir ground beef until browned, about 10 minutes. Add tomatoes, onion, water, tomato paste, cinnamon, sugar, cayenne, salt, and pepper; stir to combine. Simmer meat sauce over medium-low heat until flavors combine, 20 minutes. 3. Preheat oven to 350 o F (175 oC). 4. Pour meat sauce over rotini; mix well. Pour half the pasta mixture into a casserole dish; sprinkle with half the Mizithra cheese and half the mozzarella cheese. Top with remaining pasta mixture; sprinkle remaining Mizithra cheese and mozzarella cheese. 5. Bake in the preheated oven until cheese is melted and bubbling, about 40 minutes. SEAFOOD PASTA Ingredients Spaghetti 10 medium-sized prawns, peeled and deveined 2 handful of clams 4 pcs of frozen fish cocktail 1 can of tomato pasta sauce 4 cloves of garlic, finely chopped 50ml water 3 tbsp olive oil Method 1. Bring a pot of water to a boil. Cook the spaghetti exactly according to the packet instruction. Drain and set aside. 2. Oven-baked the fish cocktail as per the packaging instruction. Cook and set aside. 3. Heat some olive oil in a sauce pan. Sautà © the garlic till fragrant. Add the clams and prawns to stir-fry for 1 minute. 4. Pour in the pasta sauce and water. Cook and stirring for 2 minutes. 5. Toss with spaghetti and serve with baked fish cocktails. MUSHROOM PASTA WITH TRUFFLE OIL (vegetarian) Ingredients 200g pasta (I prefer to use spaghetti or angel hair pasta) 100g grey oyster mushrooms, sliced thinly A handful of cep mushrooms, soaked and chopped roughly (optional) 2-3 tbsp extra virgin olive oil 3-4 cloves of garlic, finely chopped Salt and freshly ground pepper Fresh parsley, finely chopped Truffle oil Egg (optional) Method 1. Bring a pot of salted water to boil and cook pasta according to pack instructions (al dente should take about 8-10 minutes). Remove from heat and drain, run under cold water to stop from cooking further. 2. Heat olive oil in frying pan on medium high heat. Add garlic and cook for 2 minutes until golden brown, then add the mushrooms and fry for 1-2 minutes until cooked. 3. Finally add the pasta, parsley and mix thoroughly, and then season with salt and pepper. 4. Remove from heat and serve immediately. Add a dash of truffle oil to finish. Significance of Pasta

Impacts Of A Natural Or Man Made Disaster Tourism Essay

Impacts Of A Natural Or Man Made Disaster Tourism Essay Introduction Over the years the worlds poorest countries have become popular tourist destinations, drawing visitors with images of exotic environments and cultures (Harrison, 1995; WTO, 2004). Increasing cheap and easy travel has made long distance vacations a reality. Tourism countries is growing steadily in developing, urged by this governments, and by the international community, which includes the World Bank, as a means of encouraging economic diversi ¬Ã‚ cation, stimulating local incomes and earning most foreign exchange (Brohman, 1996; Christie, 2001; Harrison, 1995; Markandya et al., 2004; WTO, 2002, 2004, 2005; WTTC, 2005).But Tourism industry is prone to fluctuate and is a uncertain strategy which often strikes with minimal warning. Tourism promotion could be an economic relief to many developing and under developing countries but, if situations to become unfavourable; it could affect the ones engaged in a worse economic situation than they were before when introduced to tourism. The risks of over-concentration on a single sector of the economy can be high (Feenstra Hanson, 1996) and this is especially true in poor counties of the world where tourism domineers the economy. The island of Bali in Indonesia is one example, peace was wrecked by terrorist bombs in October 2002, and again in October 2005. The bombs which exploded in October 2002 killed 202 people this was only the beginning, the immediate impact on it was devastating. More than 18,700 scared tourists fled Bali in three days, which is three times as more than during a normal month. After the first two weeks after the attack, visitor arrivals dropped by 80%. And hotel occupancy plunged from 73% to just 14% after the attack. Within a week of the attack major tour operators promptly drew back their holiday programmes from Bali and resorts throughout Indonesia. This paper aims at proposing marketing strategies that could be adopted in Bali, to revoke Tourism after its terrorist attacks. They are Marketing Product, Promotion and distribution systems, Prices and retargeting. This paper will discuss all the strengths and weakness of these marketing strategies and also present a conclusion based on strategies which can be adopted to alleviate the impacts of terrorism in Bali. Marketing In Tourism: Industry dont `evolve . Instead time eager to overturn the present industry order challenge `accepted practise, redraw segment boundaries, set new price performance expectations and re-invent the product or service concept (Hamel and Prahalad,1994:303). Marketing and promotions are the key factors that should be considered when tourism industry has been shattered in a country that has suffered a crisis. Marketing Bali after terrorist attack is mainly bringing back economy to the country by the means of tourism since its economy majorly depends on tourism. There are several marketing strategies which can be implemented such as Promotion and distribution, Prices and Re targeting. Promotion and distribution systems Innovative techniques such as internet play a very important role in promotion and distribution channel in terms of volume and gathering information to choose trips and buy tourism services at the lowest possible price. A considerable increase in Internet sales has opened up a new way to improve and develop the management of distribution in the businesses. Systems integrate functions such as: marketing, information, sales and end-product integration by pulling together all the elements of a tourism trip. Due to its unique characteristics, growing number of countries are promoting their products through the Internet. Distribution no longer depends on traditional channels, that is, operators and travel agencies. The reduction or elimination of commissions on ticket sales and car hires is leading to the establishment of service fees, which is a fixed amount in many cases, and to a growing emphasis on the consulting or advisory function of travel agents. Virtual distribution channels are or tend to be interactive television, call centres, direct sales via the Internet, and websites of conventional travel agencies. The role of tour operators, traditionally associated with conventional sun-and-sand holidays, is being contained. There is a continuing trend towards consolidation and vertical integration among tour operators. In order to adapt to demand, they are also becoming more flexible and are segmenting their products to a greater degree. Among the objectives of this consolidation processes are: to better control operating costs, to make better use of their airplanes and to use their information systems more efficiently. Among travel agencies, cooperatives are gaining increased prominence using a model that has been successful in the United States, as well as the establishment of a mix of distribution channels that take advantage of new technologies. The management of the chain of production is geared towards profitability, with key strategies being: increasing the load factor of own planes, achieving economies of scale, reducing risk by diversifying into new markets and consolidating brands that cover various products in order to increase customer loyalty. The Internet has a growing role but has not yet displaced print publications, television and radio, especially coupled with direct marketing, the Internet itself, the specialized press and special promotions. A message to address safety concerns must be issued in order to let people know that the Bali has tightened up its security and it is now safe for the tourist. Bali tourism officials can plan to invite all their major travel agents check new safety measures which has been implemented. Travel agents provide bulk hotel bookings; it is very important to encourage them to take personal tours to make them aware of all new security measures implemented. This will create a good image of Bali to travel agents so they feel confident on promoting Bali as a tourist destination again. It can also invite important trade partners. Concerning security and safety, JATA (Japan Association of Travel Agents), China National Tourism Administration (CNTA), Singapore Travel Agencies expressesing their satisfaction with heightened security measures implemented in the aftermath blast which can help improve tourism form Japan, China and Singapore. Advertisements. Diplomatic and celebrity endorsement can be done to bring up the market. Advertisement about a new refreshing image of Bali introducing new ideas such as surfing, honeymoon vacation, religious tourism can be enhanced better. But advertisements have to be targeted carefully. For instance, Caribbean islands invested a massive US$16 million publicity campaign to attract US tourist and tourist were still diminishing, This campaign had been suspended until and after the congressional elections of 5th November 2002. Americans were clearly not in the mood for travel, and no amount of advertising seems to be able to change. Prices: Prices are strongly influence travel purchase decisions. Price strategies have varied from straight price reductions, discounts for accompanying persons or even free travel for accompanying children, to added services. Many small and medium-sized enterprises have been especially affected by the downward trend in the price of tourism services. According to the International Federation of Tour Operators, we have gone through a year of falling demand, which has been stimulated through pricing. The effect of this factor is to reduce business revenues. Destinations with the best prices and where tour operators have own accommodations have a certain advantage of others. Use price follow PR with attractive price-led offers: both Malaysia and Sri Lanka did this very successfully post September 11th. Domestic airlines, including the national flag carrier Garuda and its subsidiary Merpati airlines, are to offer special discounts for visitors coming to Bali for the Muslim holiday of Idul Fitri, and also for Christmas and the New Year. The Indonesian Tourism Ministry and the Bali Tourist Board will work with the industry to prepare special, affordable holiday packages. Retargeting Domestic the Chairman of the Bali Tourist Board has stated: For the time being it would be wiser to focus first on the domestic market. It is appreciated that the domestic market has far lower spending power that the international one, but it can at least serve to keep the product functioning even though profits will be low. Indonesias 1000 Steps to Bali domestic promotion campaign was launched on 2nd November. The Government has announced that it will rework the public holiday calendar to create more long weekends, thus boosting the domestic market. Intraregional Singapore, for example, will concentrate on India and China, both markets likely to be less affected by this type of event. Malaysians too are apparently unphased by the events in Bali, according to feedback from MATTA, the countrys biggest travel fair: they are responding avidly to good value offers. Indonesia is also aiming to promote more in the Middle East (currently only 0.8% of total visitors). The Government has instructed all state companies, as well as encouraging private ones, to hold their corporate functions in Bali. Experienced travellers, not first timers first timers are naturally more nervous. Individuals with a passion: special interest markets held up remarkably well post September 11th. Sport, culture, newlyweds anything which gives a distinctive impetus to a trip should be targeted. Co-operation The main lessons which the tourism industry learned post September 11th is the importance of working together. The type of co-operation which it can be so hard to achieve in normal circumstances like even persuading two resorts in the same country to advertise together starts to happen spontaneously in times of crisis. The Australian Tourism Task Forces immediate reaction to the attack in Bali was: This means getting our marketing agencies together so that we have a co-ordinated campaign to remind Australians about the advantages of travelling at home and to remind the rest of the world that Australia remains a safe place for a holiday. Good security also requires national co-operation between Ministers, police, local authorities and the private sector. But the emphasis on co-operation post September 11th went wider than this. Commercial organisations and Governments started to work together more closely, not only across sector groups, but also across geographical boundaries. For example, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji came together to do joint advertising. It is important that the WTO should keep encouraging this trend. ASEAN, which held their 8th Summit between the 4th and 7th of November in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, had signed an important new Tourism Cooperation and Promotion Agreement. Malaysian Tourism Minister Abdul Kadir Sheikh Fadzir said the decision to deepen tourism cooperation was made two years ago but the Bali tragedy had given it more urgency. The 10 member grouping (plus 3 affiliated countries China, Japan and Korea) aims to promote the area as a single tourism destination in the international market, launch joint marketing programmes, introduce thematic tour packages to specific areas of interest, and harmonise visa issuance to foreigners. But the core theme of the pact is to boost intra-regional movement by phasing out travel taxes and extending visa exemptions to ASEANs 500 million citizens. The pact also aims to establish an integrated network of tourism and travel services, to encourage commercial agreements among regional airlines and to promote cruising, travel by ferries and lei sure boats. ASEAN feels that if they stop visiting each other, the terrorists will have won. But, in an illustration of the complexity of the current situation, John Koldowski from PATA commented that it was the right move for ASEAN to turn inward to revive the industry but it must not compromise national security in its rush to facilitate movement within the region. Product: We can develop events as part of the recovery phase, for instance, Indonesia will on 15thNovember invite the families of the victims to a special service in Bali to pray together. This will reinforce in a respectful way the generic spiritual image of the destination. Tour operators, airlines and cruise lines, and strive to maintain capacity. Governments need to work closely with the industry in difficult times to ensure that there is not a damaging loss of product which could limit recovery when better times come. Conclusion Promotion and distributions, Co operation and Prices inter connecting play a vital part while marketing a tourist destination. Promotion and distributions is a huge channel of communication through various sources of media like television, radios, news and newspaper, internet etc We can make a renewed image on Bali with proper media sources which will create a positive impact for tourists or travel agents. Thus it has power to reach people and can make a good impression. Co operation also is a very key strategy in marketing a destination where its needs supports from various countries to develop tourism. Good security also requires national co-operation between Ministers, police, local authorities and the private sector. Commercial organisations and Governments can work closely in joint advertising which such as straight price reductions, discounts for accompanying persons or even free travel for accompanying children, to added services and other offers which can help redeem the econ omy of Bali.

Subjective Reports of MDMA Use :: Ecstasy Illegal Drugs Hallucinogens Essays

Subjective Reports of MDMA Use In reading several reports of individuals who have experimented with MDMA several common experiences can be found, but no experiences can be thought of as universal. One of the most commonly reported experiences is a feeling of peace. Some users categorize this experience as a feeling of intense calm. They simply cannot imagine hostile or aggressive feelings towards any other person. This feeling objectively can be observed in the relative sedation of those experiencing a 'high'. In one person's experience, once the MDMA had begun to affect their body in earnest, they felt no desire to move or do anything other then remain sitting where they were. They didn't report so much an inability to move as much as an inability to imagine a situation better then their current situation. As evidenced by the number of dance clubs in which MDMA is used frequently, MDMA clearly does not block physical activity. Some experienced users report that they have a brief window of opportunity after ingesting MDMA to engage in an active behavior (such as dance). After this window is over, they become too entranced in their experience to change anything. I! f they manage to become active during this time, they feel very energized and report the calm as being a more external feeling. This externally manifested calm can be described be such terms as love, oneness, peace, happiness, trust and other such broad positive terms. MDMA users who have experience MDMA use at clubs or dances often comment on groups of users who group together. Reports from users involved in these groups express a synergistic effect of being around others who are using MDMA. Many users who came to social situations alone reported their attempts in finding other users with which to socialize. One user described the "cuddle puddles" in which several users would sit together. These areas would have pillows and water available for the users. The user reported that they would sit, talk and describe their sensations to each other. One of the primary sensations shared was their tactile sensations. A very commonly described effect of MDMA is an increased enjoyment of sensation. All sensations are described as being more interesting, or intense. One common sight described at several raves (underground dance parties) is the surgical mask smeared with mentholated petroleum. Often, users will crush MDMA and dust the inside of the mask with it, or will take MDMA

Comparing Rocking-Horse Winner, Prussian Officer, and Second Best Essay

Differences in Rocking-Horse Winner,  Prussian Officer, and Second Best Works by the same author often show the repeated use of certain words, images, or plots. In five short stories by the author, D.H. Lawrence, differences between social classes are the basis for conflict and provide the foundation for taboo relationships. These five stories are "The Rocking-Horse Winner," "The Prussian Officer," "Second Best," "The White Stocking," and "The Daughters of the Vicar." The inclusion of the motif of class differences in these particular works often leads to acts of violence or tragedy as the outcome. In "The Rocking-Horse Winner," a relationship forms between the pseudo- aristocratic Paul and his family's gardener, Bassett. Paul's family is not by any means rich, but "they felt themselves superior to anyone in the neighborhood." Bassett, in contrast, is a young war veteran turned gardener with a passion for horse racing. It turns out that this passion is shared by Paul and his uncle Oscar, as well. Oscar is at first disapproving of the relationship between "old man" Bassett and his nephew, but the love for horse racing and gambling puts them on the same level. The class difference between the men is used by Lawrence to show that debt and greed are universal desires — they are not confined to the lower classes. The fatal climax of the story is sadly also its end. When Paul falls off of the rocking-horse and lies dying in his bed, his mother is brought down from her imaginary pedestal of social superiority and allows Bassett (with whom the boy's "intense hours" were spent) t o visit with him. The story ends tragically with social differences being readily apparent. "The Prussian Officer" is similar to "The Rocking-Horse Wi... ...is a result, whether direct or indirect, of tragedy and/or violence. "The Rocking Horse Winner" and "The Prussian Officer" describe the brutish deaths of the protagonist, while "Second Best" shows the perversity of a cross-class mating ritual. "The Daughters of the Vicar" is a tragedy due to the death of a character as well as the sentencing of the two heroes to a life of seclusion and tribulation. Motifs can come in many forms, and the stories of D.H. Lawrence can be linked in a variety of ways. Interestingly enough, as illustrated by this essay, one of the strongest links has to do with the differences between people and the problems that relationships between them can cause. Works Cited: Lawrence, David Herbert. "The Rocking-Horse Winner". Literature: Reading, Reacting, Writing. Ed. Laurie G. Kirzner and Stephen R. Mandell. Forth Worth: Harcourt, Inc., 2001 Comparing Rocking-Horse Winner, Prussian Officer, and Second Best Essay Differences in Rocking-Horse Winner,  Prussian Officer, and Second Best Works by the same author often show the repeated use of certain words, images, or plots. In five short stories by the author, D.H. Lawrence, differences between social classes are the basis for conflict and provide the foundation for taboo relationships. These five stories are "The Rocking-Horse Winner," "The Prussian Officer," "Second Best," "The White Stocking," and "The Daughters of the Vicar." The inclusion of the motif of class differences in these particular works often leads to acts of violence or tragedy as the outcome. In "The Rocking-Horse Winner," a relationship forms between the pseudo- aristocratic Paul and his family's gardener, Bassett. Paul's family is not by any means rich, but "they felt themselves superior to anyone in the neighborhood." Bassett, in contrast, is a young war veteran turned gardener with a passion for horse racing. It turns out that this passion is shared by Paul and his uncle Oscar, as well. Oscar is at first disapproving of the relationship between "old man" Bassett and his nephew, but the love for horse racing and gambling puts them on the same level. The class difference between the men is used by Lawrence to show that debt and greed are universal desires — they are not confined to the lower classes. The fatal climax of the story is sadly also its end. When Paul falls off of the rocking-horse and lies dying in his bed, his mother is brought down from her imaginary pedestal of social superiority and allows Bassett (with whom the boy's "intense hours" were spent) t o visit with him. The story ends tragically with social differences being readily apparent. "The Prussian Officer" is similar to "The Rocking-Horse Wi... ...is a result, whether direct or indirect, of tragedy and/or violence. "The Rocking Horse Winner" and "The Prussian Officer" describe the brutish deaths of the protagonist, while "Second Best" shows the perversity of a cross-class mating ritual. "The Daughters of the Vicar" is a tragedy due to the death of a character as well as the sentencing of the two heroes to a life of seclusion and tribulation. Motifs can come in many forms, and the stories of D.H. Lawrence can be linked in a variety of ways. Interestingly enough, as illustrated by this essay, one of the strongest links has to do with the differences between people and the problems that relationships between them can cause. Works Cited: Lawrence, David Herbert. "The Rocking-Horse Winner". Literature: Reading, Reacting, Writing. Ed. Laurie G. Kirzner and Stephen R. Mandell. Forth Worth: Harcourt, Inc., 2001

Network installation

Choosing a network that does not meet an organization's needs leads directly to trouble. A common problem arises from choosing a peer-to-peer network when the situation calls for a server-based network Peer to peer networks share responsibility for processing data among all of the connected devices. Peer-to-peer networking (also known simply as peer networking) differs from client-server networking in several respects. According to the computer specifications a peer-to-peer network is inadequate. It can exhibit problems with changes in the network site. These are more likely to be logistical or operational problems than hardware or software problems. For example users may turn off computers that are providing resources to others on the network. (Rutter, 2008). When a network's design is too limited, it cannot perform satisfactorily in some environments. Problems can vary depending on the type of network topology in effect. The physical topology of a network is the layout or actual appearance of the cabling scheme used on a network. Multipoint topologies share a common channel; each device needs a way to identify itself and the device to which it wants to send information. The method used to identify senders and receivers is called addressing. (Mitchel, 2008) The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the network. â€Å"Topology† is the standard term that most network professionals use when they refer to the network's basic design. In addition to the term â€Å"topology,† there are other terms that are used to define a network's design: Physical layout, Design, Diagram or Map. (Mitchel, 2008). A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will have an impact on the type of equipment the network needs, Capabilities of the equipment, Growth of the network and Way the network is managed. According to Rutter, a network topology needs planning. For example, a particular topology can determine not only the type of cable used but also how the cabling runs through floors, ceilings, and walls. Topology can also determine how computers communicate on the network. Different topologies require different communication methods, and these methods have a great influence on the network. The most popular and recommendable method of connecting the cabling in the proposed computer network is the client server architecture of star topology. Here each device connects to a central point via a point-to-point link. Several names are used for the central point including the following: Hub, Multipoint Repeater, Concentrator, or Multi-Access Unit (MAU). (Microsoft MVP, 2004). For the recommended network, the central point ought to be an intelligent hub, which can make informed path selections and perform some network management. Intelligent hubs route traffic only to the branch of the star on which the receiving node is located. If redundant paths exist, an intelligent hub can route information around normally used paths when cable problems occur. Routers, bridges, ; switches are examples of hub devices that can route transmissions intelligently. These hubs are advanced such that they are able to accommodate several different types of cables. In this case there can be a main hub (the hybrid) with other sub-hubs especially for growth purposes. Intelligent hubs also can incorporate diagnostic features that make it easier to troubleshoot network problems. Hub-based systems are versatile and offer several advantages over systems that do not use hubs. In the standard star topology with hubs, a break in any of the cables attached to the hub affects only a limited segment of the network mostly only one workstation while the rest of the network keeps functioning.   In this kind of a system, wiring systems can be changed or expanded as needed, different ports can be used to accommodate a variety of cabling types and monitoring of network activity and traffic can be centralized. (Rutter, 2008) The star topology has many benefits; first each device is isolated on its own cable. This makes it easy to isolate individual devices from the network by disconnecting them from the wiring hub. Secondly all data goes through the central point, which can be equipped with diagnostic devices that make it easy to trouble shoot and manage the network. Lastly the Hierarchical organization allows isolation of traffic on the channel. This is beneficial when several, but not all, computers place a heavy load on the network. Traffic from those heavily used computers can be separated from the rest or dispersed throughout for a more even flow of traffic. According to Rutter This topology originated in the early days of computing when computers were connected to a centralized mainframe computer. One machine can act as a server and as a client at the same time since the setup is not concerned with security. This machine should be the one with the highest processing speed (3GHz), largest Random Access memory (1 Gb) and enough disk space (120 Gb). The importance of the server is to concentrate common peripheral devices, which do not need to be in multiples in the network. This computer can meet the processing and storage needs of other users, it can be able to support many more users in cases of expansion, it also enables administration of resources centrally in cases of troubleshooting there is more consistency and reliability and it also provides backup for the other machines. The server has many dedicated specialized functions in addition to providing basic network services. First it can be dedicated to managing network printers and print jobs to avoid unnecessary spooling. Secondly it can manage modems and other types of communication links. It can also be used to store large databases and run some database applications. Fourthly it can run an application for the access across the network. It can act as a mail server and provide access to email services as well as sending and forwarding email messages to intended recipients in the network. Lastly a server may provide a wide range of information to the public Internet or private intranets form the network. Upgrades can be to maintain, troubleshoot, update and fix the other computers remotely. It's way more effective than trying to explain what to do over the phone. Conclusion Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. You can probably build a home or small business network without understanding the difference between a bus design and a star design, but understanding the concepts behind these gives you a deeper understanding of important elements like hubs, broadcasts, and routes Work Cited: Brandley Mitchel, The New York Times Company. (2008). Wireless Networking. . Retrieved May 10, 2008 from: http://compnetworking.about.com/ Microsoft Most Valuable Profession, (2004, 1st December). Hardware and software specifications. http://www.ezlan.net/Installing.html Daniel Rutter, (2008,1st April). Ethernet Networking. Retrieved May 10, 2008 from: http://www.dansdata.com/network.htm

MANAGERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE Essay

The way in which managers approach the performance of their jobs and the behaviour they display towards subordinate staff is likely to be conditioned by predispositions about people, and human nature and work. Drawing on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model (which is discussed in Chapter 12), McGregor put forward two suppositions about human nature and behaviour at work. He argues that the style of management adopted is a function of the manager’s attitudes towards people and assumptions about human nature and behaviour. The two suppositions are called Theory X and Theory Y, and are based on polar assumptions about people and work. Theory X assumptions about human nature Theory X represents the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which traditional organisations are based, and was widely accepted and practised before the development of the human relations approach. Its assumptions are that: the average person is lazy and has an inherent dislike of work; most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment if the organisation is to achieve its objectives; the average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and values security most of all; and  motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels. The central principle of Theory X is direction and control through a centralised system of organisation and the exercise of authority. McGregor questions whether the Theory X approach to human nature is correct, and the relevance today of management practices which are based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X approach, and the traditional use of rewards and sanctions exercised by the nature of the manager’s position and authority, are likely to result in an exploitative or authoritarian style of management. Theory Y assumptions about human nature At the other extreme to Theory X is Theory Y which represents the assumptions consistent with current research knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of individual and organisational goals. Its assumptions are: for most people work is as natural as play or rest; people will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed; commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement; given the right conditions, the average worker can learn to accept and to seek responsibility; the capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is distributed widely in the population; the intellectual potential of the average person is only partially utilised; and motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation levels as well as the physiological and security levels. McGregor implies that a Theory Y approach is the best way to elicit co-operation from members of an organisation. It is the task of management to create the conditions in which individuals may satisfy their motivational needs, and in which they achieve their own goals through meeting the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an analysis of the implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal, administration of salaries and promotions, participation, staff–line relationships, leadership, management development and the managerial team. MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS Managerial strategies Although Theory X and Theory Y are based on polar extremes and are an oversimplification, they do represent identifiable philosophies which influence managerial behaviour and strategies. For example, as Lord Sieff comments: Now and again it is necessary to criticize people, but rather than tick them off, provided you can leave them in no doubt as to what the issue is, I am sure it pays to avoid being censorious but try instead to appeal to the innate capacity for self-criticism. Whatever you do, avoid making a mountain out of a molehill. Most people have the potential to be self-motivating. They can best achieve their personal goals through self-direction of their efforts towards meeting the goals of the organisation. Broadening educational standards and changing social values mean that people today have wider expectations of the quality of working life, including opportunities for consultation and participation in decisions which affect them. Managers should develop practices based more on an accurate understanding of human behaviour and motivation. The Theory Y approach, however, is not a ‘soft’ option. In practice it is often difficult  to achieve successfully. It can be frustrating and time-consuming, and mistakes will occur. Since 1952 I’ve been stumbling around buildings and running primitive Theory Y departments, divisions, and finally one whole Theory Y company: Avis. In 1962, after thirteen years, Avis had never made a profit (except one year when they jiggled their depreciation rates). Three years later the company had grown internationally (not by acquisitions) from $30 million in sales to $75 million in sales, and had made successive annual profits of $1 million, $3 million, and $5 million. If I had anything to do with this, I ascribe it all to my application of Theory Y. And a faltering, stumbling, groping, mistake-ridden application it was. Robert Townsend6 Demands of the situation The two views of Theory X and Theory Y tend to represent extremes of the natural inclination of managers towards a particular style of behaviour. In practice, however, the actual style of management behaviour adopted will be influenced by the demands of the situation. Where the job offers a high degree of intrinsic satisfaction or involves a variety of tasks, an element of problem-solving and the exercise of initiative, or where output is difficult to measure in quantitative terms, an informal, participative approach would seem to be more effective. It is more likely to lead to a higher level of staff morale. In many cases this would apply to work of a scientific, technical or professional nature. Where commitment to the goals of the organisation is almost a prerequisite of membership, such as in certain voluntary or charity organisations, for example, then a Theory Y approach would clearly seem to be most appropriate. Use of a Theory X approach However, even if a manager has a basic belief in Theory Y assumptions there may be occasions when it is necessary, or more appropriate, to adopt a Theory X approach. When the nature of the job itself offers little intrinsic reward or limited opportunities to satisfy higher-level needs, a more dictatorial style of management might work best. Some jobs are designed narrowly, with highly predictable tasks, and output measured precisely. This is the case, for example, with many complex production processes in manufacturing firms. With these types of jobs a Theory X approach may be needed if an adequate level of performance is to be maintained. MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS The cynic might describe efforts to turn Theory Y into practice as doing with difficulty what comes naturally to the Japanese. There, excellent managers apply principles of behaviour which translate perfectly into western language – and which have long been echoed in the progressive areas of the west. Yet you still encounter the old ostrich attitudes that caused western companies so much damage in the past: for instance, the argument that to emulate Japan is impossible because of its peculiar culture. But the famous national enthusiasm for good business and effective management isn’t simply a product of Japan’s culture. After all, sloppy western habits, like investing too little in productive capacity, new products, training, quality and marketing are hardly cultural – not unless bad business economics are built into the western mentality. Robert Heller 12 THE MANAGERIAL/LEADERSHIP GRID ® One means of describing and evaluating different styles of management is the Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid ® (see Figure 7.1). First published as the Managerial Grid in 1964, restated in 1978 and 198513 and republished in 1991 as the Leadership Grid,14 the Grid provides a basis for comparison of managerial styles in terms of two principal dimensions: concern for production; concern for people. Concern for production is the amount of emphasis which the manager places on accomplishing the tasks in hand, achieving a high level of production and getting results or profits. This is represented along the horizontal axis of the Grid. Concern for people is the amount of emphasis which the manager gives to subordinates and colleagues as individuals and to their needs and expectations. This is represented along the vertical axis of the Grid. Five basic combinations ‘Concern for’ is not how much concern, but indicates the character and strength of assumptions which underlie the manager’s own basic attitudes and style of management. The significant point is ‘how’ the manager expresses concern about production or about people. The four corners and the centre of the Grid provide five basic combinations of degree of concern for production coupled with degree of concern for people (see Figure 7.1(a)). the impoverished manager (1,1 rating), low concern for production and low concern for people; the authority–compliance manager (9,1 rating), high concern for production and low concern for people; the country club manager (1,9 rating), low concern for production and high concern for people; the middle-of-the-road manager (5,5 rating), moderate concern for production and moderate concern for people; and the team manager (9,9 rating), high concern for production and high concern for people. Managers with a 1,1 rating tend to be remote from their subordinates and believe in the minimum movement from their present position. They do as little as they can with production or with people. Too much attention to production will cause difficulties with staff and too much attention to the needs of staff will cause problems with production. Team management Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organisation atmosphere and work tempo. Concern for people Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a ‘common stake’ in organisation purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect. Middle-of-the-road management Adequate organisation performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. Impoverished management Authority–compliance management Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organisation membership. Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. In Opportunistic management, people adapt and shift to any Grid style needed to gain the maximum advantage. Performance occurs according to a system of selfish gain. Effort is given only for an advantage or personal gain. 9+9: Paternalism/maternalism Reward and approval are bestowed to people in return for loyalty and obedience; failure to comply leads to punishment Figure 7.1   The Leadership Grid (Source: Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) Leadership Dilemmas – Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991), Grid Figure, p. 29, Paternalism Figure, p. 30, Opportunism Figure, p. 31. Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.) MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS Managers with a 9,1 rating are autocratic. They tend to rely on a centralised system and the use of authority. Staff are regarded as a means of production and motivation is based on competition between people in order to get work done. If staff challenge an instruction or standard procedure they are likely to be viewed as unco-operative. The 1,9 rating managers believe that a contented staff will undertake what is required of them and achieve a reasonable level of output. Production is secondary to the avoidance of conflict and maintenance of harmony among the staff. Managers will seek to find compromises between staff and solutions acceptable to everyone. Although innovation may be encouraged, they tend to reject good ideas if likely to cause difficulties among the staff. The 5,5 rating is the middle-of-the-road management with the approach of ‘live and let live’ and a tendency to avoid the real issues. This style of  management is the ‘dampened pendulum’ with managers swinging between concern for production and concern for people. Under pressure, this style of management tends to become task management (9,1). Where this strains relations and causes resentment from staff, however, pressure is eased and managers adopt a compromise approach. If there is a swing too much the other way (towards 1,9) managers are likely to take a tighter and more hardened approach. Managers with a 9,9 rating believe in the integrating of the task needs and concern for people. They believe in creating a situation whereby people can satisfy their own needs by commitment to the objectives of the organisation. Managers will discuss problems with the staff, seek their ideas and give them freedom of action. Difficulties in working relationships will be handled by confronting staff directly and attempting to work out solutions with them. These five styles of management represent the extremes of the Grid. With a nine-point scale on each axis there is a total of 81 different ‘mixtures’ of concern for production and concern for people. Most people would come up with a score somewhere in an intermediary position on the Grid. Two additional grid styles 1991 edition of the Grid also covers two additional styles: opportunism and 9+9 paternalism/maternalism, which take account of the reaction of subordinates. In opportunistic management, organisational performance occurs according to a system of exchanges, whereby effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the same. People adapt to the situation to gain maximum advantage of it. (See Figure 7.1(b).) In 9+9 paternalistic/maternalistic management, reward and approval are granted to people in return for loyalty and obedience; and punishment is threatened for failure to comply (see Figure 7.1(c)). A summary of the seven basic combinations of the Grid is given in Table 7.1. FRAMEWORK FOR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR The Managerial Grid provides a framework in which managers can identify, study and review their patterns of behaviour. Instead of viewing management styles as a dichotomy of ‘either/or’, Blake and Mouton claim that the Managerial Grid illustrates that the manager can gain the benefits of maximising, simultaneously, methods which are both production-oriented and people-oriented. The 9,9 position, although an ideal, is worth working for. Based on their experience of using the original Grid, Blake and Mouton give three reasons why it is important to consider which style of management is used to achieve production through people. THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER The 7-S organisational framework In order to get people to accept solutions, the manager needs continually to co-ordinate and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. The  leader creates excitement in work and develops choices that give substance to images that excite people. In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of emotional involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give attention to what events and actions mean.  Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in, but do not belong to, the organisation. Their sense of identity does not depend upon membership or work roles and they search out opportunities for change. The differences between leadership and management have been applied by Watson to the 7-S organisational framework of: strategy, structure, systems, style, staff, skills and superordinate (or shared) goals. Watson suggests that whereas managers tend towards reliance on: strategy, structure, systems, leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the ‘soft’ Ss of : style, staff, skills, and shared goals. Watson also suggests, although cautiously, that 7-S management could be seen as the province of leaders. Managers will not ordinarily be capable of achieving sufficient mastery of all seven factors to attain a consistently high level of organisational performance. Distinction between management and leadership Based on experience of management approaches in both commerce and the military, Hollingsworth questions how many managers consider themselves first and foremost as leaders, relegating ‘manager’ to their job title. He argues that commercial managers need to learn from the armed forces if they wish to be viewed as leaders. Having accepted that there are some links between management and leadership, Hollingsworth lists six ‘fundamental differences’. A manager administers – a leader innovates. A manager maintains – a leader develops. A manager focuses on systems and structure – a leader focuses on people. A manager relies on control – a leader inspires trust. A manager keeps an eye on the bottom line – a leader has an eye on the horizon. A manager does things right – a leader does the right thing. Not everyone would agree with this list. Robinson, for example, suggests that if the word ‘manager’ is replaced by ‘administrator’ then the lists works. However, whatever your view the list makes for a helpful basis for critical discussion on the nature of management and leadership.25 In Chapter 6 we discussed management as getting work done through the efforts of other people. To be an effective manager it is necessary to exercise the role of leadership. A common view is that the job of the manager requires the  ability of leadership CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP THE QUALITIES OR TRAITS APPROACH The first approach assumes that leaders are born and not made. Leadership consists of certain inherited characteristics, or personality traits, which distinguish leaders from their followers: the so-called Great Person theory of leadership. The qualities approach focuses attention on the man or woman in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests that attention is given to the selection of leaders rather than to training for leadership. For example, Drucker (writing originally in 1955) makes the point that: Leadership is of utmost importance. Indeed there is no substitute for it. But leadership cannot be created or promoted. It cannot be taught or learned. There have been many research studies into the common traits of leadership. However, attempts at identifying common personality, or physical and mental, characteristics of different ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leaders have met with little success.Investigations have identified lists of traits which tend to be overlapping, contradictory or with little correlation for most features. It is noticeable that ‘individuality’ or ‘originality’ usually features in the list of traits. This itself suggests that there is little in common between specific personality traits of different leaders. It is perhaps possible therefore to identify general characteristics of leadership ability, such as self-confidence, initiative, intelligence and belief in one’s actions, but research into this area has revealed little more than this. In a series of interviews with headhunters, and senior figures in industry and the city, Management Today came up with a list of Britain’s most powerful women in business. A conclusion from the list is that the ‘top 50 women do not fit any pattern. They wield the kind of power and influence that defies stereotypes.’ Limitations of the traits approach There are two further limitations with this approach. First, there is bound to be some subjective judgement in determining who is regarded as a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader. Second, the lists of possible traits tend to be very long and there is not always agreement on the most important. Even if it were possible to identify an agreed list of more specific qualities, this would provide little explanation of the nature of leadership. It would do little to help in the development and training of future leaders. Although there is still some interest in the qualities, or traits, approach, attention has been directed more to other approaches to leadership. The qualities or traits approach gives rise to the questions: whether leaders are born or made; and whether leadership is an art or a science. The important point, however, is that these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Even if there are certain inborn qualities which make for a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. Even if leadership is something of an art, it still requires the application of special skills and techniques. THE FUNCTIONAL (OR GROUP) APPROACH This approach to leadership focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, nor on the man or woman in the job, per se, but on the functions of leadership. Leadership is always present in any group engaged in a task. The functional approach views leadership in terms of how the leader’s behaviour affects, and is affected by, the group of followers. This approach concentrates on the nature of the group, the followers or subordinates. It focuses on the content of leadership. WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDS Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model Once a lower need has been satisfied, it no longer acts as a strong motivator. The needs of the next higher level in the hierarchy demand satisfaction and become the motivating influence. Only unsatisfied needs motivate a person. Thus Maslow asserts that ‘a satisfied need is no longer a motivator’. Not necessarily a fixed order Although Maslow suggests that most people have these basic needs in about the order indicated, he also makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed order. There will be a number of exceptions to the order indicated. For some people there will be a reversal of the hierarchy, for example: Self-esteem may seem to be more important than love to some people. This is the most common reversal of the hierarchy. It is often based on the belief that the person most loved is strong, confident or inspires respect. People seeking love try to put on a show of aggressive, confident behaviour. They  are not really seeking selfesteem as an end in itself but for the sake of love needs. For some innately creative people the drive for creativity and self-actualisation may arise despite lack of satisfaction of more basic needs. Higher-level needs may be lost in some people who will continue to be satisfied at lower levels only: for example, a person who has experienced chronic unemployment. Some people who have been deprived of love in early childhood may experience the permanent loss of love needs. A need which has continued to be satisfied over a long period of time may be undervalued. For example, people who have never suffered from chronic hunger may tend to underestimate its effects, and regard food as rather an unimportant thing. Where people are dominated by a higher-level need this may assume greater importance than more basic needs. People with high ideals or values may become martyrs and give up everything else for the sake of their beliefs. Maslow claims that the hierarchy is relatively universal among different cultures, but he recognises that there are differences in an individual’s motivational content in a particular culture. THE INDIVIDUAL Degrees of  satisfaction Maslow points out that a false impression may be given that a need must be satisfied fully before a subsequent need arises. He suggests that a more realistic description is in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfaction  along levels of the hierarchy. For example, arbitrary figures for the average person may be: satisfied 85 per cent in physiological needs; 70 per cent in safety needs; 50 per cent in love needs; 40 per cent in esteem needs; and 10 per cent in self-actualisation needs. There is a gradual emergence of a higher-level need as lower-level needs become more satisfied. The relative importance of these needs changes during the psychological development of the individual. Maslow subsequently modified his views by noting that satisfaction of self-actualisation needs by growth-motivated individuals can actually enhance these needs rather than reduce them. Furthermore, he accepted that some higher-level needs may still emerge after long deprivation of lowerlevel needs, rat her than only after their satisfaction. Evaluation of Maslow’s theory Based on Maslow’s theory, once lower-level needs have been satisfied (say at the physiological and safety levels) giving more of the same does not provide motivation. Individuals advance up the hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied. Therefore, to provide motivation for a change in behaviour, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs (in this case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction. Applications to the work situation However, there are a number of problems in relating Maslow’s theory to the work situation. These include the following: A useful basis  for evaluation People do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, just through the work situation. They satisfy them through other areas of their life as well. Therefore the manager would need to have a complete understanding of people’s private and social life, not just their behaviour at work. There is doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a lower-level need and the emergence of a higher-level need. Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need. For example, some people prefer what they might see as the comparative safety of working in a bureaucratic organisation to a more highly paid and higher status position, but with less job security, in a different organisation. Some rewards or outcomes at work satisfy more than one need. Higher salary or promotion, for example, can be applied to all levels of the hierarchy. Even for people within the same level of the hierarchy, the motivating factors will not be the same. There are many different ways in which people may seek satisfaction of, for example, their esteem needs. Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour. But job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work performance. Although Maslow did not originally intend that the need hierarchy should necessarily be applied to the work situation, it still remains popular as a theory of motivation at work. Despite criticisms and doubts about its limitations, the theory has had a significant impact on management approaches to motivation and the design of organisations to meet individual needs. It is a convenient framework for viewing the different needs and expectations that people have, where they are in the hierarchy, and the different motivators that might be applied to people at different levels. The work of Maslow has drawn attention to a number of different motivators and stimulated study and research. The need hierarchy model provides a  useful base for the evaluation of motivation at work. For example, Steers and Porter suggest a list of general rewards and organisational factors used to satisfy different needs (see Table 12.1).29 WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDS Applying Maslow’s need hierarchy Needs levels General rewards Organisational factors 1 Physiological Food, water, sex, sleep a. Pay b. Pleasant working conditions c. Cafeteria 2. Safety Safety, security, stability, protection a. Safe working conditions b. Company benefits c. Job security 3. Social Love, affection, belongingness a. Cohesive work group b. Friendly supervision c. Professional associations 4. Esteem Self-esteem, self-respect, prestige, status a. Social recognition b. Job title c. High status job d. Feedback from the job itself 5. Self-actualisation Growth, advancement, creativity a. Challenging job b. Opportunities for creativity c. Achievement in work d. Advancement in the organisation Saunders contends that despite the time that has elapsed, Maslow’s theory remains watertight.  When prehistoric man first took shelter in a cave and lit a fire, he was satisfying his lowest – physiological and safety needs. When a Buddhist achieves a state of nirvana, she is satisfying the fifth and highest – self-actualisation †¦The cave these days might be a three-bedroom semi with garden and off-street parking, but the fact remains that once we’ve got enough to feed, clothe and house our families money is a low-level motivator for most people. The dash for cash is soon replaced by the desire for recognition, status and ultimately (although Maslow reckoned that a lot of us never get this far) the need to express yourself through your work. Pyramid of employee commitment Revisiting and developing Maslow’s hierarchy, Stum looked at the dynamic between an individual and the organisation, and proposes a new employee/employer social contract that enables organisations to improve employee commitment and retention. The five levels of workforce needs hierarchy are shown in a ‘Performance Pyramid’. Safety/security – the need to feel physically and psychologically safe in the work environment for commitment to be possible; Rewards – the need for extrinsic rewards in compensation and benefits; Affiliation – the intrinsic need for a sense of belonging to the work team or organisation; Growth – addressing the need for positive individual and organisational change to drive commitment; Work/life harmony – the drive to achieve a sense of fulfilment in balancing work and life responsibilities.